A Christian Approach to Islam
Part
1
Garry
K. Brantley, M.A., M.Div.
In 1990, U.S.
President George Bush was faced with an international crisis
that he felt warranted
an immediate and decisive military response. Under the direction
of Saddam Hussein, Iraq invaded the small, bordering nation
of Kuwait. Iraq’s massive military, with its superior weaponry,
experienced little difficulty occupying and controlling Kuwait.
The threat of destabilization in this oil-rich region prompted
President Bush to dispatch thousands of troops into Saudi
Arabia, which began Operation Desert Shield. In early 1991,
U.S. and allied troops successfully defeated Iraq’s feared
military in the now-famous Operation Desert Storm, and drove
back the remnants of Hussein’s tattered troops to Baghdad,
the capital of Iraq.
During this conflict, which
potentially threatened global peace, millions in the U.S.
were glued to their television
sets by anxiety over the fates of their fellow citizens.
Technology and dauntless reporters kept us abreast of practically
every frightening clash between Iraqi and allied forces.
In the course of this continuous news coverage, Westerners
not only were confronted with Saddam Hussein’s dreaded military,
but also were exposed to a culture that is dominated by an
unfamiliar religion—Islam. With the increasing awareness
of our global society, and with the worldwide proliferation
of this religion, it is important for Christians to understand
and respond to Islam.
ORIGIN
OF ISLAM
Such a task must begin with
Islam’s origin and nature. The
immensity of the subject and space restrictions preclude
an exhaustive treatment of these points. Hence, only a broad
survey of the origin and contours of Islamic thought and
practices will be presented.
Muhammad, Founder of Islam
The origin of Islam can be
traced back to Muhammad (var. sp.: Muhammed, Mohammed),
who was born c. A.D. 570 at Mecca,
the holy city in western Saudi Arabia. Muhammad’s practically
unknown father died before his birth, and his mother died
when he was only six. The early orphaned Muhammad was reared
by his grandfather and uncle who, though disputed by some
Western scholars, appear to have been prominent members of
the Qurayah tribe. This Arabian clan was the guardian of
the Kaabah (var. sp.: Ka’bah), the great shrine at Mecca
in whose walls the sacred black stone was embedded. According
to Arabian tradition, the black stone fell from heaven in
the time of Adam, a possible indication that it was a meteorite
that landed in the sands of Arabia (Humble, 1980, 4:52).
Muslims believe that, on his pilgrimage to Mecca with Ishmael,
Abraham built the Kaabah and positioned the meteorite within
its walls. This shrine, which figures prominently in Muhammad’s
life and the establishment and development of Islam, was
dedicated to the Arabs’ pantheon of deities.
While Muhammad’s early life is somewhat obscure, apparently
he was employed by a rich widow, Khadija, who entrusted him
with her caravans. Khadija was so impressed with his dependable
and conscientious service that she married Muhammad, provided
him with wealth and success, and encouraged his religious
inclinations. With his wife’s support, Muhammad increasingly
withdrew from business affairs, and spent much of his time
in the seclusion of the desert meditating and reflecting
on life (Schmalfuss, 1982, p. 311). During this process,
Muhammad developed a passionate monotheistic belief, and
became extremely frustrated with the polytheism and superstitions
of his fellow Arabs. Though it is difficult to determine
the extent to which variant shades of Christianity and Judaism
influenced the development of Muhammad’s strict monotheism,
it is clear that ”at some period of his life he absorbed
much teaching from Talmudic sources and had contact with
some form of Christianity” (Anderson, 1975, p. 93).
Muhammad’s Revelations and the Qur’an
According to Islamic tradition,
Muhammad, at the age of forty, began to receive revelations
from God through the
angel Gabriel. His first alleged encounter with the heavenly
messenger was quite violent. While Muhammad was in a deep
trance, Gabriel appeared to him and, either by choking or
some other life-threatening gesture, forced Muhammad into
submission. “Read,” Gabriel demanded, “in the name of thy
Lord, who created man from clots of blood” (sura 96:1;
cf., Schmalfuss, 1982, p. 311). Since the encounter was both
violent and accompanied by convulsions that sent him into
an unconscious trance, Muhammad at first was unsure of the
source of his vision. He feared that he possessed one of
the jinn (demons) commonly believed to inhabit Arab
poets and soothsayers (Anderson, 1975, p. 94). Khadija and
others, however, assured Muhammad of the divine source of
his visions. Once convinced of his prophetic call, Muhammad’s
revelations occurred with increasing frequency.
Since, as many Muslims argue,
Muhammad was illiterate, he did not record these revelations
personally. During his lifetime,
however, his followers transcribed and collected much of
Muhammad’s oral teachings into the Qur’an (var. sp.: Koran),
though many passages were preserved only in the memory of
his followers and were committed to writing after his death
(Shorrosh, 1988, p. 24). The word Qur’an derives from the
Arabic word qara’a (“to recite”), a designation consistent
with the recurring mandate for Muhammad to “proclaim” (i.e., “recite” or “read”)
the words of Allah. Consisting of 114 chapters (called suras),
the Qur’an is a non-chronological collection of verses, reflecting
various periods in Muhammad’s life. Each sura of the
Qur’an is subdivided into verses (ayat). Interestingly,
the Arabic word ayat carries with it the meaning of “a
miracle.” For those seeking certification of his claims,
Muhammad would appeal to the Qur’an itself as miraculous
confirmation of his divine appointment to the prophetic office
(Wilson, 1982, p. 315). All Muslims, regardless of their
sectarian affiliation, continue to regard the Qur’an as their
sacred and authoritative text.
Muhammad’s Rejection and
Flight from Mecca
Once convinced that his first
revelatory experiences in the desert were from God, Muhammad
began to denounce openly
the polytheism of his people and to proclaim a rigid monotheism.
By emphasizing the resurrection of the dead, and the subsequent
judgment of God, he challenged the populace to submit to
the One (Allah) true God, and to show compassion to the poor.
Consistent with this message of submission, the word “Islam” is
the infinitive of the Arabic verb “to submit,” and “Muslim” (“one
who submits”) is the present participle of the same verb.
Muhammad’s monotheistic message threatened the financial
interests of many in Mecca who profited from the regular
pilgrimages of polytheists to the Kaabah. As might be expected,
Muhammad met with considerable opposition, and succeeded
in making only a few converts. Due to the increasingly aggressive
hostility directed against him by the traders at Mecca, Muhammad
and his small band of followers fled from Mecca to Medina
on July 16, 622. This “flight” from Mecca, which Muslims
call the “Hijra,” marks the official beginning of
the Islamic religion. Reflecting this point of origin, the
Islamic calendar is calibrated to the Hijra. According
to Islamic chronology, for example, A.D. 630 would be designated
8 A.H. (“in the year of the Hijra”).
Unlike his experience in
Mecca, where he was rejected as an eccentric purveyor of
an unpopular—and unprofitable—religion,
Muhammad enjoyed greater success in Medina. There, he “soon
became statesman, legislator and judge—the executive as well
as the mouthpiece of the new theocracy” (Anderson, 1975,
p. 95). Several suras in the Qur’an, which emphasize
obedience to the Prophet and insist on his favorable treatment,
reflect Muhammad’s influential position at Medina (cf., 3:29,126;
4:17-18; 24:63-64; 49:2-4; see Geisler and Saleeb, 1993,
p. 57).
Though significantly greater
than at Mecca, Muhammad’s success
at Medina was not as extensive as he desired. He particularly
was disappointed at his lack of reception among the Jewish
population. Rather than embracing him for his monotheism,
the Jews eventually rejected Muhammad’s prophetic claims,
and criticized his inaccurate accounts of Old Testament events.
It became obvious that there were serious discrepancies between
Qur’anic and biblical details of the same incident. To maintain
the divine origin of the Qur’an, Muhammad was compelled to
charge the Jews with either corrupting, or misquoting, their
own scriptures. This allegation further heightened the tension
between Muhammad’s followers and the Jews, and eventually
precipitated the banishment or massacre of Jewish tribes
in that area (Anderson, 1975, p. 95).
The Return to Mecca
Once his relationship with
the Jews was severed, Muhammad no longer looked to Jerusalem,
but refocused on Mecca as
the center of the Islamic religion. Muhammad’s renewed interest
in Mecca necessitated his purging the town of its polytheism,
thus bringing it into harmony with the monotheism of Islam.
Enlisting the help of nomadic Arab tribes, Muhammad led a
series of armed raids on Mecca, and in A.D. 630 he captured
the city with no resistance. Mecca quickly was purged of
all its polytheistic symbols, and the Kaabah became the focal
point of the religion of the one true God. Before his death
in A.D. 632 (11 A.H.), Muhammad had made great strides in
unifying the Arab tribes throughout the Arabian peninsula
under the banner of Islam (see Anderson, 1975, p. 96; Noss,
as quoted in McDowell, 1983, p. 381).
MAJOR
DIVISIONS OF ISLAM
Since Muhammad neither left
a male heir nor named a successor, his death created an
immediate leadership crisis in Islam.
The nature of Islam, however, which encompassed both civil
and religious concerns, demanded a successor (Caliph, or
Khalifa) to guide its adherents in applying the principles
of the Qur’an to contemporary circumstances. Naming such
an individual proved to be a difficult and divisive task.
Along with other issues of interpretation, the role of, and
criteria for appointing, the Caliph eventually fragmented
Islam into two major divisions that remain today: Sunni and
Shi’a (see Kung, 1986).
The Sunni
The Sunni branch, claiming
approximately 90% of all Muslims, argued that the Caliph
should belong to Muhammad’s tribe,
the Qurayah, and that the community should choose him by
the process of consensus (ijma). Since Muhammad was
the “Seal of the Prophets,” the Sunnis considered the responsibilities
of the Caliph merely to guard—not continue—the prophetic
legacy, and to provide “for the administration of community
affairs in obedience to the Qur’an and prophetic precedent” (Kerr,
1982, p. 330). Within thirty years of Muhammad’s death, four
Caliphs were appointed in succession: Abu Bakr (632-634), ‘Umar
(634-644), ‘Uthman (644-656), and ‘Ali (656-661). Sunnis
regard these first Islamic leaders as “the four rightly guided
Caliphs,” since they lived so close to Muhammad. Because
of their chronological proximity to Muhammad, Sunnis believe
that the sunna (behavior or practice) of these four
Caliphs, together with the Prophet’s, is authoritative for
all Muslims. The Sunnis derive their name from this emphasis
on the sunna. While there are subdivisions of this
group, distinguished by specific points of interpretation,
they all call themselves Sunni.
The Shi’a
The other major branch of
Islam, which claims about 10% of the Muslim population
and exists primarily in Iraq and
Iran, is the more militant Shi’a. The Shi’ites, as those
comprising the Shi’a sect are called, splintered from the
Sunnis primarily over the question of the Caliphate. Regarding
this matter, there are specifically two points of disagreement
between Shi’ites and Sunnis. First, the Shi’ites place more
rigid genealogical restrictions on the Caliph than do the
Sunnis. On the one hand, Sunnis believe that the Caliph should
be a descendent of Muhammad’s tribe. On the other hand, Shi’ites
argue that the Caliph should descend specifically from ‘Ali,
Muhammad’s son-in-law. In fact, the word Shi’ite means “partisan” and
indicates that Shi’ites are “partisans of ‘Ali” (Rood, 1994).
Second, the Shi’ites differ with the Sunnis regarding the
authority of the Caliph. Unlike the Sunnis, Shi’ite Muslims
believe that the Islamic leader, whom they call the imam,
is more than merely a guardian of Muhammad’s prophetic legacy.
Rather, Muhammad bequeathed ‘Ali with his wilaya (i.e.,
his “spiritual abilities”), enabling him to interpret the
Qur’an and to lead the Islamic community infallibly. Though
there are various interpretations, Shi’ites generally believe
that the wilaya has been passed down through the subsequent
generations of ‘Ali’s descendants. They further believe that
this “cycle of the wilaya” will continue until the
last day when humankind will be resurrected and judged (see
Kerr, 1982, p. 331).
The majority faction within
the Shi’a branch, known as the
Imamis (most of whom live in Iran), believes that the completion
of the wilaya cycle will end with the messianic return
of the twelfth imam. According to this sect, the twelfth imam has
been in “occultation” (the state of hiding) since the third
century of Islam. They believe, however, that the ayatollahs (senior
experts in Islamic law) have access to the hidden imam,
and thus, have the right to interpret Islamic law and make
religious rulings (Kerr, 1982, p. 331). The late Ayatollah
Khomeini, perhaps the most widely remembered Shi’ite leader
among contemporary Westerners, was considered to be the spokesman
for the hidden imam.
Sufis
Though more a movement within,
rather than a sect of, Islam, a third identifiable group
that should be mentioned is the
Sufis. Reacting to the externally oriented, and legalistic
disposition of the Islamic religious system, Sufis seek a
mystical experience of God. The word Sufism usually is translated “mysticism,” which
reflects this emphasis on a personal religious experience.
Since Sufis, who belong to either the Sunni or Shi’a sect,
desire more than an intellectual knowledge of Allah, they
are prone to a number of superstitious practices (Rood, 1994).
BASIC
BELIEFS OF ISLAM
As might be expected, in light of the vast diversity in
Islam, there are many variant beliefs among Muslims worldwide.
Though there are differences of opinion surrounding their
application, six articles of faith form the core of the Islamic
religion.
1. Monotheism. As
indicated earlier, pre-Islamic Arabs were polytheists.
Due to Muhammad’s successful monotheistic
campaign, Muslims recognize and devote themselves to only
one God, whom they call Allah. Worshiping or attributing
deity to any other being is considered by Muslims to be shirk,
or blasphemy.
2. Angels and jinn. Muslims believe in a well-structured
organization of angelic beings. At the lowest level in the
hierarchy of spirit beings in Islamic thought are the jinn,
who are capable both of committing good and evil deeds, and
of inhabiting human beings. After his first frightening encounter
with Gabriel, Muhammad feared that he was possessed by one
of these potentially fiendish beings. The angels of God are
above the jinn in rank. In Islamic angelology, each
Muslim is accompanied by two angels—one on the right, the
other on the left. This angelic pair is responsible for recording
the good and evil deeds of the Muslim, respectively.
3. God’s holy books. The
Qur’an refers to numerous
other volumes that Muslims consider as God’s holy books.
Chief among these Islamic sacred texts are: the Mosaic Law;
the Davidic Psalms; the Gospel (Injil) given to Jesus;
and the Qur’an revealed to Muhammad. Muslims, following Muhammad’s
allegation, contend that the original Torah (Pentateuch),
Psalms, and Gospels have been corrupted by Christian and
Jewish writers, and essentially lost. As the final revelation
from God, the Qur’an supersedes all previous revelations
and truth claims (Shorrosh, 1988, p. 30).
4. God’s prophets. Muslims
believe that there has been a long succession of prophets
through whom Allah revealed
his will. While there is no consensus regarding the exact
number of prophets, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus
are considered the five prophetic predecessors to Muhammad.
There seems to be universal agreement among Muslims that
Muhammad was God’s supreme and final prophet—the “seal” of
the prophets.
5. Resurrection and Judgment. Similar to elements
of Christian eschatology, Muslims believe in a general resurrection
of humankind, followed by a final judgment. In this connection,
human works are central. How successful a Muslim was at keeping
the mandates of Islamic law determines his or her eternal
fate. Those who have accomplished more good deeds than bad
will be admitted into paradise, a place abounding with sensual
pleasures (e.g., luxury, physical comfort, abundant food,
lovely maidens, etc., see sura 4:57-58; 37:45-48).
Those who are deficient in good deeds will be consigned to
hell in which, among other excruciating torments, they will
be attired in fiery garments (sura 22:19-20; cf.,
18:28-29).
6. Predestination. Though
not a mandatory doctrine, most Muslims accept a rigid form
of predestination reflected
in the comment made by the devout: “If Allah wills it.” This
belief holds that all events, good or bad, are determined
directly by Allah. It is thus the function of the dedicated
Muslim to “submit to that divine determination with obedient
thankfulness,” though he or she still must face Allah’s strict
justice (Shorrosh, 1988, p. 32).
BASIC
PRACTICES OF ISLAM
As already indicated, human
works play a crucial role in Islam. The most important
works or duties generally acknowledged
by Muslims may be summarized in what are commonly called
the “Five Pillars of Islam.”
1. The creed (kalima or shahada). “La
ilaha il’ Allah, Muhammadan Rasoulu Allah.” These words,
translated, “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is
the messenger of Allah,” constitute the essential creed
of Islam. This is the first duty of every Muslim, for it
is necessary to recite this creed before at least two witnesses
to become a Muslim. And, the faithful Muslim will repeat
this creed constantly.
2. Prayers (salat).
Muslims, regardless of their social or economic status,
submit to a rigorous daily
regimen of prayer. Five times a day (only three for Shi’ites),
Muslims respond to the call to prayer by the muezzin (a
Muslim crier) from a tower called a minaret, which
is part of the mosque (the place of public worship).
They recite prescribed prayers together with the appropriate
action of placing the forehead to the ground. Regardless
of their geographic location, the faithful Muslim will face
toward Mecca and perform this prayer ritual at the appropriate
intervals. It is further incumbent on all adult male Muslims
to gather each Friday at noon for community prayer, and to
hear a weekly sermon.
3. Almsgiving (zakat and sadaqa).
Orphaned himself at a young age, Muhammad was very sensitive
to the
plight of the destitute. Though some do so more extensively
than others, several Qur’anic suras emphasize the
duty of Muslims to give alms (2,4,19,23,33,107). Almsgiving
is divided into two broad categories. The zakat are
the legal alms, which require that Muslims allocate 2.5%
(one-fortieth) of their income and merchandise for this charitable
purpose. Different percentages are assigned to agricultural
produce and cattle. The sadaqa are free-will offerings
that are above and beyond the legally binding proportion
of almsgiving.
4. Fasting (Ramadan). During the month of Ramadan (the
ninth lunar month of the Islamic year), all healthy, adult
Muslims (except pregnant women, nursing mothers, and travelers)
are required to abstain from food, liquids, and sexual intercourse
during daylight hours. There are both historical and theological
reasons for Ramadan. Historically, Muslims believe
that during the ninth lunar month, Muhammad received the
first revelations from God and that during this same month,
he and his followers made their historic escape from Mecca
to Medina. Theologically, the fast helps develop a Muslim’s
self-control, reliance on Allah, and sympathy for the poor.
5. The Pilgrimage (Hajj). Every Muslim is
expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in
his or her lifetime. Since the rituals involved in the pilgrimage
are physically demanding, the old or infirm can perform this
duty by proxy. The Hajj serves to solidify Islamic
faith, and to promote the ideas of worldwide unity and equality
among Muslims (Rood, 1994; McDowell, 1983, p. 392).
6. The Holy War (jihad). Though not a part
of the Five Pillars, the jihad is a duty usually associated
with them. The word means “exertion” or “struggle” on behalf
of God. Muslims are divided regarding the Qur’an’s call to jihad.
Extremists interpret jihad as literal warfare against
non-Muslims, and believe that Muslims who die in a holy war
are assured of a place in paradise. More moderate interpreters
suggest that the Qur’an’s call to arms refers to a specific
incident of Muhammad’s armed conflict with his enemies, and
should neither be applied universally nor pressed literally
(Al-Ashmawy, 1995, p. 158).
In addition to these basic beliefs and practices, Muslims
are guided by numerous laws and traditions contained in the hadith.
The hadith, which was compiled after the Qur’an was
completed, reportedly contains Muhammad’s examples and statements
regarding various topics. The Qur’an and hadith address
virtually every aspect of life, making Islam not just a religion,
but an all-encompassing way of life.
REFERENCES
Al-Ashmawy, Sai’d (1996), “Islam’s
Agenda,” Readers Digest,
pp. 156-160, January.
Anderson, Norman (1975), “Islam,” The
World’s Religions,
ed. Norman Anderson (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans).
Geisler, Norman L. and Abdul Saleeb (1993), Answering
Islam (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker).
Humble, B.J. (1980), “The
Religion of Iran [Part I],” Firm
Foundation, 97[4]:52, January 22.
Kerr, David (1982), “The
Unity and Variety of Islam,” Eerdmans’ Handbook
to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans).
Kung, Hans (1986), “Sunnis and Shi’ites:
The State, Law, and Religion: A Christian Response,” Christianity and
World Religions, ed. Hans Kung (Garden City, NY: Doubleday).
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart (1983), Handbook
on Today’s
Religions (San Bernardino, CA: Here’s Life Publishers).
Rood, Rick (1994), What Is Islam? [Online]. (Richardson,
TX: Probe Ministries). URL http://www.gocin.com/probe/islam.htm.
Schmalfuss, Lothar (1982), “Muhammad,” Eerdmans’ Handbook
to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans).
Shorrosh, Anis A. (1988), Islam
Revealed: A Christian Arab’s View of Islam (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson).
Wilson, Christy (1982), “The Qur’an,” Eerdmans’ Handbook
to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans).
Copyright © 1996
Apologetics Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/print/222
This
document may be copied, on the condition that it will not
be republished in print unless otherwise stated below,
and will not be used for any commercial purpose, as long
as the following stipulations are observed: (1)
Apologetics Press must be designated as the original publisher;
(2) the specific Apologetics Press Web
site URL must be noted; (3) any references,
footnotes, or endnotes that accompany the article must
be included with any written reproduction of the article;
(4) textual alterations of any kind are
strictly forbidden; (5) Some illustrations
(e.g., photographs, charts, graphics, etc.) are not the
intellectual property of Apologetics Press and as such
cannot be reproduced from our site without consent from
the person or organization that maintains those intellectual
rights; (6) serialization of written material
(e.g., running an article in several parts) is permitted,
as long as the whole of the material is made available,
without editing, in a reasonable length of time; (7)
articles, in whole or in part, may not be offered for sale
or included in items offered for sale; and (8)
articles may be reproduced in electronic form for posting
on Web sites pending they are not edited or altered from
their original written content and that credit is given
to Apologetics Press, including the web location from which
the articles were taken. Further, documents may not be
copied without source statements (title, author, journal
title), and the address of the publisher and owner of rights,
as listed below.
For
catalog, samples, or further information, contact:
Apologetics
Press
230 Landmark Drive
Montgomery, Alabama 36117
U.S.A.
Phone (334) 272-8558
http://www.apologeticspress.org
|
